Research Summaries 2010

Between 2001 and 2003, a nationally representative telephone survey was conducted by the National Center for Injury Prevention and Control as part of the Second Injury Control and Risk Survey (ICARIS-2). The interviews were either in English or Spanish and targeted U.S. adults (age 18 years or older). With 9,684 completed surveys, the national prevalence rate for sexual victimization by sex, age, race/ethnicity, and type of perpetrator were estimated. The findings indicated that 1.7% of the U.S. population experienced unwanted sexual activity in the past 12 months, 6.5% of the population experienced forced sex at least once in their lifetime, and 34.9% of first victimizations occurred prior to the age of 18 in the United States. The authors recommended more emphasis on primary prevention efforts for children and adolescents as a means to minimize sexual violence.

The purpose of this study was to examine how college men’s rape supportive attitudes are expressed in both intention to commit date rape and perceptions of the risk and rewards of the behavior. Participants included 129 male undergraduates from a university in the eastern United States. Participants were assigned to 1 of 3 conditions, presented with a hypothetical scenario, and asked to consider positive and negative outcomes of the scenario. One significant risk/reward pattern was identified: men who recognize a date rape situation as potentially criminal and yet report potential for continuing romantic or sexual relationships with a woman. Rape myths were more likely to be endorsed by this group and the group did not view the legal consequences as a real risk. To achieve long-term attitudinal and behavioral changes, prevention programs should focus on changing the perceptions of risks and rewards of sexual aggression.

This study examined the impact of victim and offender substance use on sexual assault outcomes among 970 females in a large Midwestern city. Data was obtained from the first wave of a longitudinal study on sexual assault recovery among a community sample. Findings indicated that offender substance use resulted in more victim injuries and more medical attention. Physical force and verbal threats resulted in greater odds of completed rape and injury. Physical resistance by the victim resulted in more injures. Prevention programs should target men and women separately, focus on the role of substance use, offender aggression, and other situational factors.

This review article examined sexual assault experiences of African America, Asian American, Latina, and Native American women. Prevalence, risk factors, mental health effects, barriers to disclosure, cultural beliefs, community attitudes, and social support are discussed. Authors concluded that minority women reported greater psychological impacts and barriers to obtaining protection orders and support services. Implications for policy, practice, and research are presented.

The 2005 and 2006 Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System surveys were used to examine sexual violence victimization among men. Three categories of sexual violence victimization were used: attempted forced intercourse (AI), completed unwanted intercourse (CI), and attempted and completed victimization (ACI). Prevalence of sexual violence victimization was over 5%. Men who reported AI or CI reported poor mental health, poor life satisfaction, activity limitations, and infrequent emotional or social support. Relationship characteristics suggested that men were more likely to be victimized by friend, acquaintance, or coworker and men who reported ACI were more likely to be victimized by male parent, guardian, or stranger. If a female perpetrator was reported she was more likely to be a former intimate partner. Results suggested that professionals should consider similarities in demographics and associations of health outcomes among male and female victims.

The purpose of the study was to examine how student attitudes about rape victims and rape myth acceptance changed over one semester after taking a course that focused on violence against women compared to other courses. A pretest survey was administered to 214 students enrolled in 3 different classes at a public university in New England (women and violence, gender in everyday life, and sociology). A second survey was administered to 137 at the end of the semesters. Findings indicated that classes that addressed violence against women had the greatest effect on changing rape supportive attitudes. Attitudes were only somewhat affected by classes that focused on gender. Classes that did not focus on gender or violence showed no change in attitudes toward rape victims. Classes that take longer periods of time to discuss topics related violence against women at length may be an effective strategy in changing attitudes towards rape victims and rape myth acceptance.

This study assessed trends of children’s exposure to abuse, violence, and crime victimizations by comparing 2 national telephone surveys. In 2003 and 2008 surveys were conducted with caretakers who had children between 2 to 17 years old and used identical questions. Some of the types of victimizations that declined were: physical assault (53% to 50%), sexual assault (3% to 2%), and exposure to community violence (30% to 25%). Children’s exposure to adult physical abuse increased. Authors suggested that the data analyzed in the study may confirm that child victimization has declined, which is encouraging for those working to create safe environments for children.

The purpose of this study was to identify the situational contexts in which bystanders are present during a violent crimes and the prevalence of helping and hurting responses to them. Data for this study were taken from National Crime Victimization Surveys conducted from 1995 through 2004. Findings indicated that it was common that bystanders were present during physical assaults in public locations. Their presence was less likely during sexual assaults and rape in private locations. Bystanders are more likely to help than hurt the situation during a sexual assault when a weapon is not present. Overall, some situations are related to a high level of helping responses while others are not. Some situations resulted in more damaging outcomes for the victims.

This study identified reasons why women may not report sexual assaults to police and the differences in demographics, assault characteristics, and injury patterns between those who do and do not report assaults. Data was gathered from 337 adult women who presented to a YWCA Nurse Examiner Program or emergency department. Results indicated that one out of four of the women did not report the rape to the police. No differences were reported in frequency or severity of injuries between reporters and non-reporters. Age, martial status, and ethnicity were not associated with reporting. Women who did not report were more likely to be employed, had a history of drug or alcohol use, knew the perpetrator, and had longer intervals of time between assault and forensic evaluation. The authors suggested that a strategy to increase reporting may be to increase the likelihood of arrest and prosecution of perpetrators.

Factors that may increase risk of victimization among 87 female undergraduates from a college in Western New York were examined. Victimization experiences were measured at the beginning of the school year (Time 1) and once at the end of the school year (Time 2). Sexual victimization included unwanted sexual contact, sexual coercion, attempted and completed rape. Findings indicated that at Time 1, 46% reported one or more episodes of sexual victimization, most of which was experienced during high school. Approximately 67% of those who reported victimization at Time 1 reported victimization at Time 2. Women who reported victimization at Time 2 reported greater behavioral and characterological self-blame and lower sexual refusal skills at Time 1 compared to women who did not report college victimization. Prevention programs should address self-blame, sexual assertiveness, and rape myths.

The purpose of this study was to compare revictimization risk behaviors among women who labeled an experience as rape or victimization (acknowledged) with those who did not (unacknowledged). Data was collected from 334 women from 3 southeastern universities using an online survey. A 6-month follow-up survey was completed by 105 of the participants. Results indicated that unacknowledged assaults were less violent and less likely involved physical force and threats. Unacknowledged victims were more likely to be binge drinking at the time of the assault and more likely to continue a relationship with the perpetrator following the assault. Significant group differences were found only in reports of attempted rape at the follow-up period. Future research should examine how a victim’s acknowledgment status and risk behaviors, specifically alcohol use, may impact sexual revictimization.

Between 2002 and 2003 a telephone survey was conducted with 705 men in Virginia to examine rates of sexual. Lifetime prevalence of sexual assault was 12.9% and 40% of the assaults occurred before victims were 12 years of age. The most common forms of sexual assault were non-forcible child molestation (6.4%) and non-forcible child rape (4.5%). Men assaulted as children were 2 times more likely to report suicidal ideation and 3 times as likely to report depression. Prevalence of sexual assault decreased with age and men with increased educational attainment were more likely to report sexual assault. The authors recommended that primary prevention efforts should be targeted at boys.

This study examined 175 officially substantiated inmate-on-inmate sexual violence cases that occurred between 1998 and 2006 in one Midwestern state correctional facility. Officially substantiated cases were misconduct cases with hearing findings of guilt. Two different types of sexual incidents were identified: a threat, attempt, or actual penetration and unwanted touching (grabbing, rubbing, or fondling a sleeping inmate). Findings suggested that sexual abuse victimization as a child, serving a life sentence, and adult sexual assault convictions predicted perpetration of unwanted sexual touching. Sexual penetration was predicted by a history of juvenile robbery, adult sexual assault convictions, and more years in prison. For each additional year in prison, the likelihood of being a perpetrator of a penetration incident increased by 15.5%. Besides sex offender treatment while in prison and other interventions are needed to protect inmates from victimization.

Twelve focus groups were conducted with 6th, 7th, and 8th, graders in Atlanta, Georgia. Students were asked about behaviors, beliefs, and attitudes about dating relationships. Topics included: characteristics of middle school dating relationships, healthy and unhealthy relationships, perceived relationship norms, emotional, physical, and sexual abuse, bystander interventions, and trusted sources for information about dating. Dominant themes emerged: abuse increased with age, dating relationships mimic traditional gender roles and are supported by peer relationships, slapping or grabbing were most commonly reported forms of physical violence, and grabbing and touching were most commonly reported forms of sexual abuse. African American youth had greater exposure to peer violence. Males reported that they may be hesitant to intervene in a violent situation because the bystander may be hurt as well as the victim. Implications for practice suggest skill building for bystanders to examine options of intervening safely. Prevention activities and messages should be tailored to subsets of youth by age, race/ethnicity, gender, and other social differences.

This study examined how 372 college student’s perceptions of their self and their peer group portrayed in poster images affected their willingness take on prosocial bystander behaviors. The posters used for this study were from the sexual violence prevention poster campaign, Know Your Power. One situation portrayed in a poster showed 2 women strategizing on how to stop a young man leading an incapacitated young woman upstairs at a house party. Posters were displayed throughout a midsize northeastern university and surrounding businesses for 4 weeks. At the end of the poster campaign students were tasked to complete an online survey. Findings indicated that participants who saw the posters and were familiar with the content were more likely to report they were comfortable in taking on prosocial bystander roles. Students who indicated that the scenes portrayed situations that were familiar to them were more likely to take action or contemplate taking action in situations where sexual violence may occur. Social marketing campaigns may be more effective if campaign designers ensure that the target audience can recognize themselves, people like them, or their friends in the campaigns and the situations that are familiar to them.

One hundred sixteen male and female undergraduate participants were presented with scenarios online in which the level of rape myths and the type of rape were manipulated. Victim blame, perpetrator blame, belief in a just world, sex-role egalitarian beliefs, and male rape myth acceptance were examined. Male rape acceptance was found to be a predictor of victim blaming. Acquaintance rape victims were blamed more than victims of stranger rape. Belief in a just world was not a predictor of perpetrator or victim blaming. Sex-role egalitarian beliefs predicted perpetrator blaming but not victim blaming. The study highlighted the importance of understanding how rape myths may influence the level of blame directed towards the victim and perpetrator. Myth acceptance may affect jury decisions and police officers’ interactions with victims and perpetrators.

This meta-analysis examined the relationship between RMA and behavioral, attitudinal, and demographic factors. Thirty-seven articles and dissertations published over the past 10 years in the United States (34) and Canada (3) were reviewed. Findings indicated that men exhibited significantly higher endorsements of RMA than women. Associations between RMA and sexual aggression, hostile attitudes and/or aggressive behaviors toward women were found. Higher endorsement of RMA may be related with playboy behavior, sociosexuality, and high use of degrading images. Authors suggested that rape education programs should include broader strategies to address oppressive beliefs such as sexism, racism, and classism.

Institutional discourses that may support a culture of blame and responsibility aimed at female victims of violence were examined. In 2005, unstructured interviews were conducted with 15 volunteers (13 women, 2 men) who worked with female victims of violence in the United Kingdom. The narratives were divided into 3 themes: burden of responsibility placed on women, surveillance and normalizing judgments, and institutional attitudes. The analyses suggested that even though organizational rhetoric, policies, and measures provided immediate assistance to victims they often did not address wider social attitudes that may cause an ambiguous response from the volunteer toward the victim’s experience. Authors suggested that the civic-political culture should move away from a produced victim and focus on the social attitudes that may generate a victim.

This study examined the relationship between community attitudes towards LGBTQ persons and responses toward sexual assault survivors using an on-line survey and 4 focus groups in the Pacific Northwest. Participants (130) were recruited using a listserv of sexual and domestic violence social service activists and providers, sexual violence agency bulletin boards, and 2 organizations that provided services to the LGBTQ community. Findings suggested that sexual violence is not generally discussed in the LGBTQ community in order to protect community from additional discrimination and because of gaps and barriers to services. The authors suggested that LGBTQ friendly practices should be incorporated into mainstream systems and cultural competency training should include same-sex issues.

The purpose of the pilot study was to evaluate the feasibility of doing a full-scale evaluation of the effectiveness of Beyond Blame, an 8 lesson curriculum that addressed youth violence. In 2005, 3 middle schools in the Los Angeles Unified School District participated in the intervention and 1 school was the control. A majority of the students were Hispanic (61.8%). Results indicated that intervention group increased knowledge of media violence but no significant changes were documented in attitudes, behaviors, and beliefs. Concerns about the literacy level of curriculum were reported.

The purpose of this study was to determine if an interactive curriculum that integrated dating violence prevention with lessons on healthy relationships, sexual health, and substance use reduced PDV 2.5 years later among 1, 722 students in Ontario, Canada. The secondary purpose of the study was to reduce risk behaviors of peer violence, substance use, and condom use. In 2004, schools were randomly assigned to intervention or control groups and the program was implemented among 9th grade students. Findings indicated: by the end of 11th grade PDV increased for all students from approximately 1% to 8%, PDV was higher for students in control group (9%) than the intervention group (7%), the effect of the intervention was different between boys and girls. No significant differences between the groups were reported for physical peer violence, substance use, or condom use. Authors suggested that methods developed for single-focused interventions can be combined from a core relationship perspective and teachers with training can implement evidenced-based prevention programs.

The purpose of this study was to explore the risk factors for dating violence victimization among Latino adolescents with considerations to gender differences. The study sample included 322 Latino youth between the ages of 11 and 13 living in Maryland. Participants were given surveys that used questions from the CDC’s Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance System (YRBSS) and assessed physical dating violence victimization, violence-related behaviors, substance use, emotional well-being, prosocial behaviors, and parental/familial factors. The prevalence rate for dating violence victimization among female adolescents was 14.4%. Male adolescents had a prevalence rate of 12.9% for dating violence victimization. The highest prevalence of dating violence was documented among eighth graders. In addition to determining binge drinking as a risk behavior related to dating violence victimization in girls, this study found that gun carrying, alcohol consumption, and having considered suicide were associated with dating violence victimization in boys. Strong parental/familial connections and support were considered protective factors and may lower the risk of dating violence victimization among Latino adolescents. Prevention programs that promote healthy dating relationships and awareness of dating violence for elementary school aged children were recommended.