The study was unique because it examined a wide variety of outcomes and explored the impact of several program factors on program effectiveness. Meta-analyses were conducted with 69 studies and 102 treatment interventions. The results showed that sexual assault programs influenced the most positive change in rape knowledge. The programs had a small, but positive influence on rape attitudes. They had a smaller impact on behavioral intentions, rape-related attitudes, and incidence of sexual assault and no impact on rape empathy and rape awareness behaviors. Several factors were associated with program effectiveness including length of the intervention, type of presenter, program content, type of audience, and gender of audience. Implications for practice and research are presented.
These summaries were written by SVPEP staff and are based on original papers published within the last 6 years. The information available on this web site is provided as a public service and does not necessarily reflect the opinion of the U.S. Centers of Disease Control and Prevention, the Arizona Department of Health Services, or the University of Arizona. To conduct an individual search or locate older articles use the Search Summary Database which includes over 600 articles related to sexual violence.
College
Anderson, L. A., & Whiston, S. C. (2005). Sexual assault education programs: A meta-analytic examination of their effectiveness. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 29, 374-388.
Bouffard, L. A., & Bouffard, J. A. (2010). Understanding men’s perceptions of risks and rewards in a date rape scenario. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, (online).
The purpose of this study was to examine how college men’s rape supportive attitudes are expressed in both intention to commit date rape and perceptions of the risk and rewards of the behavior. Participants included 129 male undergraduates from a university in the eastern United States. Participants were assigned to 1 of 3 conditions, presented with a hypothetical scenario, and asked to consider positive and negative outcomes of the scenario. One significant risk/reward pattern was identified: men who recognize a date rape situation as potentially criminal and yet report potential for continuing romantic or sexual relationships with a woman. Rape myths were more likely to be endorsed by this group and the group did not view the legal consequences as a real risk. To achieve long-term attitudinal and behavioral changes, prevention programs should focus on changing the perceptions of risks and rewards of sexual aggression.
The study did not measure prior sexual aggression which may shape perceptions of risks and rewards.
Bradley, A. R., Yeater, E. A., & O’Donohue, W. (2009). An evaluation of a mixed-gender sexual assault prevention program. Journal of Primary Prevention, 30, 697-715.
The purpose of the study was to examine the short-term effectiveness and likeability of a mixed-gender sexual assault prevention program for college students at a mid-sized West Coast university. Students who received the intervention (177) were compared to those who did not (132) prior to the intervention and 2 weeks later. Results indicated that men who received the intervention reported increased empathy, distress, sadness and adherence to rape myths. However, 8% of men reported feeling aroused following the prevention program. The program did not change women’s knowledge of assault, participation in risky dating behaviors, or sexual communication strategies. There was no relationship found between whether women thought they already knew the material and scores on the Sexual Communication Survey and Dating Behavior Survey. Authors suggested that prevention programs should not only be information based but should also include role playing and exercises with examples of what to do when faced with a high-risk dating situation.
The follow-up period was short and the program focused on male-to-female sexual assault only.
Breitenbecher, K. H. (2008). The convergent validities of two measure of dating behaviors related to risk for sexual victimization. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 23, 1095-1107.
Responses from 370 women were taken to assess the convergent validities of the Dating Self-Protection Against Rape Scale (DSPARS) and the Dating Behavior Survey (DBS). Responses assessed self-protective dating behaviors, risk-related dating behaviors, risk perception in a sexual assault scenario, and history of sexual victimization. Findings of the study indicated that lower scores on DSPARS were correlated with a greater delay in perception of risk, more frequent involvement in risk-related behaviors, and increased history of more frequent sexual assaults. Higher DBS scores were associated greater delay in perception of risk and histories of more frequent victimization. The findings support convergent validities of DSPARS and DBS. A copy of the DBS instrument is included in the article.
Retrospective study that only included college women.
Brown, A. L., & Messman-Moore, T. L. (2010). Personal and perceived peer attitudes supporting sexual aggression as predictors of male college students’ willingness to intervene against sexual aggression. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 25, 503-517.
The purpose of this study was to examine how personal attitudes and perceived peer attitudes about sexual aggression predicted college men’s willingness to intervene against sexual assault. Participants included 395 students from a medium-sized university in the Midwest. Findings indicated that perceived peer norms regarding sexual aggression were more relevant to men’s willingness to intervene against sexual aggression than personal attitudes supporting sexual aggression. Overall, men higher in both personal support and perceived peer support for sexual aggression reported less willingness to intervene. Sexual assault prevention programs may be more successful if the topic of bystander intervention is presented in the context of a discussion about sexual violence norms, not just personal beliefs about sexual violence.
The sample only included males enrolled in college so results may not be generalizable to other populations of men. Support for sexual aggression and willingness to intervene questionnaires have not yet been validated.
Brown, A. L., & Testa, M. (2008). Social influences on judgments of rape victims: The role of the negative and positive social reactions of others. Sex Roles, 58, 490-500.
This study investigated how judgments about rape victims may be influenced by social reactions of others and varies by type of rape and gender. Results were based on reports from 110 college students and showed exposure to negative social reactions decreased emotional support, perpetrator blame and sympathy and support to victim. Negative reactions were associated with negative judgment but positive reactions had no effect.
The study did not indicate if one or a combination of negative reactions may influence negative social reactions.
Coker, A. L., Sanderson, M., Cantu, E., Huerta, D., & Fadden, M.K. (2008). Frequency and types of partner violence among Mexican American college women. Journal of American College Health, 56, 665-673.
Phone interviews were conducted with 149 women who were enrolled as college students near the Texas-Mexico border. The interviews were structured to assess physical violence (PV), battering, sexual violence (SV), stalking psychological abuse, and lifetime physical violence. Results indicated that 43% of women experienced some type of PV, 5.1% experienced SV, 19.7% were stalked and 30% experienced psychological abuse. Co-occurrence of violence was evident among those who reported physical or sexual violence. The probability of viewing violence as a problem increased with frequency of physical violence.
The sample size was small and women who participated in study may have been more or less likely to experience dating violence.
Daigle, L. E., Fisher, B., & Cullen, F. T. (2008). The violent and sexual victimization of college women: Is repeat victimization a problem? Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 23, 1296-1313.
The study analyzed data from two national surveys on victimization of women enrolled in colleges and universities: the National College Women Violent Victimization (NCWVV; n=4,432) and the National College Women Sexual Victimization (NCWSV; n=4,446). Respondents were asked if they had experienced violent or sexual victimization during the school year, and when the incident occurred. This allowed researchers to determine the sequence in which repeat victimizations occurred. Almost half of the victims experienced about three-quarters of all victimizations. Victims were at an elevated risk of re-experiencing violence within a few months following the first incident. Repeat incidents usually were the same kind of violence as the initial incident. Of non-sexual violent attacks, only simple assault carried a risk of repeated violence, and was the only type of violence more likely to be perpetrated by a stranger. The only victim behavior associated with single victimization was the use of forceful physical resistance. Because most victims who report their attack do so to friends (rather than parents or authorities), researchers recommend including information on risks of repeat victimization in college sexual assault prevention education programs.
The study was not able to determine if repeat victims were attacked by the same perpetrators during subsequent incidents; this information would be useful in planning prevention education.
Flack Jr., W. F., Caron, M. L., Leinen, S. J., Breitenbach, K. G., Barber, A. M., Brown, E. N. et al. (2008). "The red zone": Temporal risk for unwanted sex among college students. Journal of Interpersonal Violence,23, 1177 - 1196.
There is a popular perception that inexperienced college freshman women are at greatest risk for sexual assault, especially during the first few weeks or months of the fall semester. To test this, the researchers surveyed first-year (n=104) and second- year (n=101) male and female college students about unwanted experiences of sexual contact. Those who had experienced unwanted sex were asked to place the event(s) in one of 7 time periods. Women reported significantly higher rates of unwanted sex than men (44% vs. 7%). Most experiences involved the consumption of alcohol (81%) and almost one-third of the offenders were well-known to their victims (all were students at the university). Relatively more unwanted touching experiences occurred during the last time period—the second year from about one month after the start of school to the middle of October—than any other time. Researchers were told by sorority members that this corresponded to the period called “pledging”, during which young (second-year) women were invited to frequent fraternity parties at which alcohol was consumed.
This study was conducted at a small Eastern liberal arts college. College cultures and activities vary widely, and results of this study might have been different at a campus with different characteristics.
Gidycz, C., Rich, C., Orchowski, L., King, C., & Miller, A. (2006). The evaluation of a sexual assault self-defense and risk-reduction program for college women: A prospective study. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 30, 173-186.
Researchers examined changes in protective behaviors, sexual communication, and self-efficacy among college women participating in a sexual assault avoidance program (n=234) compared with a control group (n=266). The seven-hour skills-building program included lecture, video, group discussion, role play, and physical self-defense techniques. Three months later, a 1-½ hour “booster” session was given. Only self-protective behaviors increased over time more among program participants compared with the control group. About the same number of women in both groups reported experiencing moderate or severe victimization during the follow-up period. Among those who were victimized, program participants were more likely to blame the perpetrator. Researchers found that the only factor associated with being victimized during the follow-up period was a history of adolescent victimization.
Limits of the study include the small sample size. Program participants may have identified a broader range of experiences as sexual victimization than non-participants.
Gross, A. M., Winslett, A., Roberts, M., & Gohm, C. L. (2006). An examination of sexual violence against college women. Violence Against Women, 12, 288-300.
The sample consisted of 935 undergraduate female students who were recruited from introductory psychology classes and on-campus sororities. A questionnaire was administered to participants in small groups. The results showed that 27% of the women had experienced unwanted sexual contact since enrolling in college. Thirty-seven percent of the sample reported multiple forced sexual experiences. African-American women reported higher rates of sexual victimization compared to White women. Survivors and perpetrators reported high rates of alcohol consumption during the time of the sexual experience. Boyfriends were the most common perpetrator of sexual aggression. Implications for prevention efforts are discussed.
Katz, J., & Myhr, L. (2008). Perceived conflict patterns and relationship quality associated with verbal sexual coercion by male dating partners. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 23, 798-814.
This study explored verbal sexual coercion against women by their male sexual partners. Once hundred ninety-three undergraduate women in consensually sexual dating relationships were asked about male partner verbal sexual coercion, conflict behaviors, and relationship quality. The findings showed an association between women feeling pressured to have sex and their perceptions of psychological abuse and destructive conflict behavior patterns. In general, women reported less relationship satisfaction and less sexual satisfaction and desire.
The sample consisted of primarily Caucasian college-aged women. Results were based on self-reports and may be subject to response bias.
Katz, J., May, P., Sorensen, S., & DelTosta, J. (2010). Sexual revictimization during women’s first year of college: Self-blame and sexual refusal assertiveness as possible mechanisms. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, online.
Factors that may increase risk of victimization among 87 female undergraduates from a college in Western New York were examined. Victimization experiences were measured at the beginning of the school year (Time 1) and once at the end of the school year (Time 2). Sexual victimization included unwanted sexual contact, sexual coercion, attempted and completed rape. Findings indicated that at Time 1, 46% reported one or more episodes of sexual victimization, most of which was experienced during high school. Approximately 67% of those who reported victimization at Time 1 reported victimization at Time 2. Women who reported victimization at Time 2 reported greater behavioral and characterological self-blame and lower sexual refusal skills at Time 1 compared to women who did not report college victimization. Prevention programs should address self-blame, sexual assertiveness, and rape myths.
Reports of initial victimization were higher among the sample than similar studies.
Kaysen, D., Neighbors, C., Martell, J., Fossos, N. & Larimer, M. (2006). Incapacitated rape and alcohol abuse. Addictive Behaviors, 31, 1820-1832.
Male and female students at three colleges completed questionnaires about alcohol use at three time points over three years. Incapacitated rape was assessed with the question, “have you ever been pressured or forced to have sex with someone because you were too drunk to prevent it?” More women than men reported ever having experienced incapacitated sexual assault (10.0% vs. 5.7%). Students who drank the most and had the most self-reported alcohol-related problems were more likely to experience incapacitated sexual assault. The relationship was cyclical: after sexual assault, students drank more and had more alcohol-related problems. Women who had never experienced incapacitated rape and who were not raped during the study period drank less than other students. Results from the study indicated that programs to discourage high-risk drinking among college students may help reduce incidence of sexual assault. The researchers suggested that early intervention following sexual assault may help prevent later increases in alcohol use and alcohol-related problems.
Klaw, E. L., Lonsway, K. A., Berg, D. R., Waldo, C. R., Kothari, C., Mazurek, C. J., & Hegeman, K. E. (2005). Challenging rape culture: Awareness, emotion and action through campus acquaintance rape education. Women & Therapy, 28, 47-63.
The Campus Acquaintance Rape Education (CARE) program is based on a feminist perspective, emphasizing the role of gender inequality in sexual violence. Students enrolled in the course are trained to facilitate rape education workshops on campus. The data sources consisted of focus group discussions and reaction papers written by CARE students. Using content analysis, the authors identified three themes related to the effects of the CARE course: 1) increased rape consciousness, 2) emotional reactions to the course material, and 3) increased skills and activism. Unique reactions by men, women, and female survivors were documented. The authors conclude with suggestions for rape education programs and related research.
Krebs, C. P., Lindquist, C. H., Warner, T. D., Fisher, B. S., & Martin, S. L. (2009). College women’s experiences with physically forced, alcohol-or other drug-enabled, and drug-facilitated sexual assault before and since entering college. Journal of American College Health, 57, 639-648.
The Campus Sexual Assault study examined the prevalence of different types of sexual assault experienced by women and the means by which sexual assault was achieved. Data was collected from 5,466 undergraduate women from 2 public, 4- year universities. Participants reported on attempted and completed rape and sexual battery and if the assault occurred by use of physical or threatened force or incapacitation. The findings indicated: approximately 20% of undergraduate women experienced some type of completed sexual assault while in college, 11% while incapacitated, 7.8% experienced alcohol and/or other drug enabled sexual assault. Implications for practice include that campus sexual assault prevention programs should integrate information about substance use into programming.
Findings may not apply to all college women.
Littleton, H., Axsom, D., & Grills-Taquechel, A. (2009). Sexual assault victim’s acknowledgement status and revictimization. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 33, 34-42.
The purpose of this study was to compare revictimization risk behaviors among women who labeled an experience as rape or victimization (acknowledged) with those who did not (unacknowledged). Data was collected from 334 women from 3 southeastern universities using an online survey. A 6-month follow-up survey was completed by 105 of the participants. Results indicated that unacknowledged assaults were less violent and less likely involved physical force and threats. Unacknowledged victims were more likely to be binge drinking at the time of the assault and more likely to continue a relationship with the perpetrator following the assault. Significant group differences were found only in reports of attempted rape at the follow-up period. Future research should examine how a victim’s acknowledgment status and risk behaviors, specifically alcohol use, may impact sexual revictimization.
Demographic diversity between groups may have attributed to differences in revictimization rates.
Messman-Moore, T. L. & Brown, A. L. (2006). Risk perception, rape, and sexual revictimization: A prospective study of college women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 30, 159-172.
In this longitudinal study, 262 women completed a series of questionnaires four times over eight months. Rates of sexual victimization and rape experienced by participants were assessed over time. At baseline, 56.8% of the women had already experienced some form of sexual victimization in their lifetime. Participants were asked to read two scenarios ending in rape, one involving a male acquaintance and the other a male stranger (scenarios are presented in the Appendix). Women indicated at what point during the scenario they would feel uncomfortable and when they would leave the situation. During the eight month follow-up period, 43.4% of participants reported some type of unwanted sexual experience, and 10% of the women were raped. Prior victimization and delayed risk response (i.e., leaving the hypothetical situation later in the scenario) were associated with increased likelihood of sexual victimization during the course of the study. The researchers recommended that prevention programs place more emphasis on risk-reduction behaviors rather than risk identification, and that acquaintance rape scenarios should be used more than stranger rape scenarios in sexual violence education programs.
Milhausen, R., McBride, K. & Jun, M. (2006). Evaluating a peer-led, theatrical sexual assault prevention program: How do we measure success? College Student Journal, 40, 316-328.
Researchers evaluated the success of a peer-led sexual assault prevention intervention. The program consists of a skit about a date that ended in a sexual encounter. The skit is followed by group discussion and education about sexual assault on campus.
Thirty-seven men and 37 women completed a pre- and post-test. Males were more likely than females to endorse rape-supportive myths both before and after. After the presentation, fewer males and females agreed with two measures of rape-myth acceptance, but both had a slight decrease in accepting that “No means stop.” This might be explained by ambiguity in the skit, and the researchers recommend making the point more clearly and strongly. Researchers also looked for differences in results between two instruments: the Rape Myth Acceptance Scale (RMAS) and the Sexual Beliefs Scale (SBS). Because no difference was found pre- and post-test on the RMAS, but the SBS measured differences in 3 of 5 subscales, researchers suggest that the SBS is a more useful tool.
Limits of the study include a small and non-random sample. It is not known if attitude changes lasted over time.
Miller, A. K., Markman, K. D., & Handley, I. M. (2007). Self-blame among sexual assault victims prospectively predicts revictimization: A perceived sociolegal context model of risk. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 29, 129-136.
The study explores relationships between sexual assault, self-blame and sexual revictimization (SRV). Participants of the study consisted of 144 undergraduate females at a Midwestern University who reported adolescent sexual assault experiences occurring after age 14. Each participant was administered the SRV version of the SES and the Posttraumatic Cognitions Inventory. Participants also completed interviews about their sexual assault experiences and a survey on legal perceptions of heterosexual interaction resulting in intercourse. All participants completed the SRV version of the SES 4.2 months later. This investigation found that the degree of self-blame women experience following a sexual assault can influence subsequent victimization. Women who have greater perceptions that the law permits men’s behavior of engaging in nonconsensual sex are more likely to blame themselves for their assault or that they failed to prevent their assaults.
The study included a sample that was primarily Caucasian (96.4%). Caucasian women may have different legal perceptions of sexual assault than women from different ethnic, racial, and socioeconomic backgrounds.
Mumford, E. A., Kelley-Baker, T., & Romano, E. Sexual assault histories and evening drinking among young American men in a high-risk drinking environment. Journal of Sex Research, 46, 1-9.
This study examined history of sexual assault perpetration as a predictor of drinking among 650 males. Between 2006 and 2008 groups of young American men traveling from San Diego, California to Tijuana, Mexico were randomly surveyed during their return to the US. Sexual assault histories and blood alcohol concentration were measured. Results indicated sexual assault histories were associated with increased drinking and greater likelihood of binge drinking. Those with a history of sexual coercion drank more while in Tijuana. Authors suggested that prevention efforts should target different audiences to reduce victimization in environments where there is increased alcohol use.
This study included groups crossing the US-Mexico border and may not be generalizable to all college-aged populations.
Parkhill, M. R. & Abbey, A. (2008). Does alcohol contribute to the confluence model of sexual assault perpetration? Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 27, 529-554.
This study expanded on past research on the Confluence Model of Sexual Assault Perpetration by examining how alcohol use may contribute to men’s likelihood of perpetrating sexual assault. Two key components of the Confluence Model were tested: impersonal sex and hostile masculinity. The sample consisted of 365 men at an urban university who were at least 21 years old, drank alcohol, and had heterosexual dating experiences within the past year. The survey measured delinquency, drinking behaviors and expectancies, impersonal sex, hostile masculinity, situational alcohol consumption, and sexual assault perpetration. At least one sexually aggressive act (making a woman have sex who clearly did not consent or who was unable to consent) was reported by 58% of the men, 48% perpetrated only when sober, 27% only when intoxicated, and 25% had perpetrated both when sober and intoxicated.
The confluence model developed for research with college students may not be generalizable to other community samples.
Potter, S. J., Moynihan, M. M., Stapleton, J. G., & Banyard, V. L. (2009). Empowering bystanders to prevent campus violence against women. A preliminary evaluation of a poster campaign. Violence Against Women, 15, 106-212.
This exploratory study developed a poster campaign on sexual and intimate partner violence and evaluated its impact on a campus community. Students at a northeastern university were exposed to posters and flyers that modeled prosocial behaviors on a college campus. After one month, 372 students completed an on-line survey that included questions about bystander behavior, views of violence against women on campus, and stages of change. Results indicated that those who saw the poster/flyers reported greater awareness (contemplation) and willingness (action) to reduce sexual violence. However, students that participated in prior prevention programs had higher precomtemplation and action scores than those who reported seeing the posters/flyers.
Previous participation in sexual violence prevention programs had a significant effect on the dependent variable measures.
Schewe, P. A., Adam, N. M., & Ryan, K. M. (2009). A qualitative analysis of the temptation to use force in sexual relationship. Violence and Victims, 24, 219-231.
Eighty-three undergraduate males from a university in the Mid-west were asked questions about situations in which they may have been tempted to use force or coercion to obtain sexual contact, their thoughts about rape, and methods that men used to avoid engaging in sexual coercion. Twenty-two men reported that they had been tempted to use force one or more times and 4 of those incidents resulted in nonconsensual sex. Of those 22 situations, 10 involved alcohol or drugs. The majority of men in this sample endorsed rape myths even if they did not ever feel tempted to use force or coercion. Because of the lack of group differences in scores on the Rape Myth Acceptance Scale (RMA), authors suggested that RMA may need to be updated.
The sample included mostly white, heterosexual males who were 19 years old.
Thompson, E. H. & Cracco, E. J. (2008). Sexual aggression in bars: What college men can normalize. The Journal of Men’s Studies, 16, 82-96.
Two hundred sixty-four men from 22 colleges and universities were administered a questionnaire about gender ideologies and sexual experiences. Results indicated that men’s sexual aggressive behaviors in bars be related to attitudes and expectations of masculinity. Men in bar settings may feel entitled to do masculinity. Masculinity beliefs in these settings encouraged men to behave in an assertive, tough, aggressive or violent ways. The most often used form of aggressiveness in bars was nonverbal behaviors such as grabbing a woman. The most sexually aggressive men were younger, heterosexual, unmarried, and support masculinity expectations. Results of this study indicated that sexual aggression can be normalized in specific settings and these norms permit sexual coercion.
The sample size from each of the 22 colleges and universities was small and participants were recruited by faculty peers and student recruiters.
Wantland, R. A. (2008). Our brotherhood and your sister: Building anti-rape community in the fraternity. Journal of Prevention & Intervention in the Community, 36, 57-73.
This case study of the Fraternity Peer Rape Education Program (FPREP), examined men’s perceptions of change within themselves, their interactions, and fraternity community. Ten men participated in the class; only 4 interviews were selected for transcription. Findings suggested that participants: recognized rape-supportive behaviors and challenged those views, and internalized the role of a responder. Relationships with fraternity became strained and changed when they challenged friends and brothers, created a shared sense of partnership and responsibility and disrupted traditional masculine relationships within fraternal community. The author suggested that educators must provide support to those who suffer losses within their communities and empower them to broaden their sense of community, while finding ways that they can stay connected to their fraternity.
Small sample size and selected interviews may have introduced bias.
White, J. W. & Smith, P. H. (2009). Covariation in the use of physical and sexual intimate partner aggression among adolescent and college-aged men: A longitudinal analysis. Violence Against Women, 15, 24-43.
This longitudinal study investigated physical and sexual aggression of males from high school through four years of college. Data was gathered using a series of surveys from 3 groups of males aged 18-19 who were entering college. Results indicated, 49% of men reported at least 1 incident of physical or sexual aggression and 10.9% reported at least 1 incident of both physical and sexual aggression. The frequency of aggression declined over time but was higher in adolescence and the 2nd year of college. Men who reported being in exclusive relationships reported more physical aggression during the first two years of college. The effect of childhood victimization was strongest during adolescence and decreased over time. Men who witnessed domestic violence or experienced physical punishment during childhood had greater likelihood of co-perpetration. Prior years of perpetration were the best predictors of future perpetration.
It was not determined if co-perpetration is qualitatively or quantitatively different from other forms of perpetration.
Yeater, E., & Viken, R. (2010). Factors affecting women’s response choices to dating and social situations. Journal of Interpersonal Violence. (Online)
The sample included 170 undergraduate women and 44 different vignettes that illustrated problems a college woman might encounter while on a date or in a social situation (e.g., party, school event, etc.) with a man. Each vignette had six different response options that ranged from low response refusal (i.e., acquiescence) to high response refusal (i.e., aggression). The study participants were asked to choose the response option that best characterized their reaction to each situation presented in the vignettes. The findings suggested that women who reported more severe histories of sexual victimization and higher disinhibition were likely to select lower response refusals. Women with greater number of sexual partners and greater alcohol use did not choose lower response refusals as hypothesized by researchers. Authors recommended that prevention programming should focus on teaching women how to refuse men’s unwanted sexual advances, especially for those women that have a history of sexual victimization or a high disinhibition personality trait.
The study sample was small and selected from a psychology subject pool.